Is Smacking Children Harmful? What the Research Says

Our children certainly know how to push our buttons. When emotions run high and patience wears thin, parents may fall back on the discipline strategies they experienced in their own childhood including physical punishment, such as smacking.

Smacking is a highly debated parenting practice. In some countries, such as Norway and Finland, it is illegal, while in others, including England, Northern Ireland, and much of the USA, it remains lawful in certain circumstances. Some argue it’s a harmless way to correct behaviour, while others believe it can cause lasting harm. So what does the evidence actually say?

In this article, we’ll explore:

• What the law says about smacking in the UK
• What research shows about the short- and long-term effects of smacking children
• Why physical punishment is considered harmful
• What to do instead

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What Does the Law Say About Smacking Children in the UK?

Physical punishment is banned entirely in Scotland and Wales. However, in England and Northern Ireland, smacking is still allowed under a legal defence known as “reasonable punishment.” This permits limited physical discipline only where no injury is caused.

Any physical punishment that results in injury, including bruising, marks, or swelling is unlawful. Because the law does not clearly define what counts as “reasonable,” decisions are ultimately made case by case, leaving significant room for interpretation.

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How Research Defines Smacking

In research, smacking (often referred to as spanking) is defined separately from child abuse. It is typically described as:

“The use of physical force with the intention of causing a child to experience pain but not injury, for the purposes of correction or control of the child’s behaviour.”

This definition excludes severe or injurious acts such as hitting with objects, burning, or choking meaning many studies focus specifically on ordinary smacking, not abuse.

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Why Smacking Is Under Scrutiny

Concerns about smacking have been raised by major professional and global organisations, including the American Academy of Paediatrics and the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, both of which advise against physical punishment.

Despite this, smacking remains common. Globally, around 80% of children experience spanking or physical punishment from their parents (UNICEF, 2014).

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Is Smacking Still Harmful When Abuse Is Excluded?

Yes. A large meta-analysis by Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) examined 75 peer-reviewed studies involving 160,927 children, focusing specifically on spanking, defined as open-handed hitting on the buttocks or extremities.

Even when harsh or abusive practices were excluded, smacking was still associated with detrimental child outcomes. Importantly, no evidence was found that smacking improved children’s behaviour in the long term.

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The Short and Long-Term Effects of Physical Punishment

In childhood, smacking is associated with:

• increased aggression
• more antisocial behaviour
• more externalising behaviour problems
• more internalising behaviour problems
• poorer mental health
• more negative parent–child relationships
• lower moral internalisation
• lower cognitive ability
• lower self-esteem

One of the most concerning findings is that the more children are smacked, the greater their risk of them experiencing later physical abuse.

In adulthood, a history of physical punishment is associated with:

• adult antisocial behaviour
• adult mental health problems
• stronger support for physical punishment

This suggests a possible intergenerational cycle, where children who are smacked are more likely to support smacking as adults.

More recently, a 2024 meta-analysis involving over 159,000 participants found that corporal punishment, including smacking, is associated with an increased risk of violent behaviour across childhood and adulthood, with stronger effects as punishment becomes more severe.

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Does Smacking Improve Behaviour?

Smacking is sometimes defended because it may lead to short-term compliance. A child may stop a behaviour in the moment. However, decades of research show that short-term compliance is not the same as long-term learning.

Large reviews of the evidence have found little evidence of long-term benefit and consistent links between smacking and increased risk of harm. Importantly, when parents reduce their use of physical punishment, children’s behaviour often improves. For example, evaluations of the Incredible Years programme found that reductions in conduct problems were significantly linked to parents smacking less.

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Why Is Physical Punishment So Detrimental?

1. It teaches aggression

Children learn by example. When adults use physical force to correct behaviour, it can teach children that hitting is an acceptable way to handle conflict or frustration.

2. It can escalate

Smacking and physical abuse can sit on a continuum. Research shows that most substantiated cases of physical abuse begin as responses to children’s misbehaviour the same context in which smacking often occurs.

3. It harms the parent–child relationship

Smacking is associated with more negative parent–child relationships. This matters because connection is one of the strongest predictors of children’s long-term emotional health and behaviour.

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Why Parents Use Smacking

Many parents who smack do so because they’re overwhelmed, not because they want to hurt their child. Smacking often happens in moments of high stress, when a child isn’t listening, emotions are running high, or a parent feels exhausted, out of control, or judged. In these moments, parents may reach for the quickest strategy they know, especially if it’s one they experienced themselves growing up.

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What to Do Instead of Smacking: Practical, Evidence-Based Alternatives

Knowing that smacking isn’t helpful in the long term is one thing. Knowing what to do in the moment when your child is melting down, hitting, refusing, or pushing every last button is another.

1. Regulate first, discipline second

When children are overwhelmed, their brains are in “survival mode.” Reasoning won’t land until they’re calmer.

Try:

• getting down to their level
• using a calm voice
• naming what you see: “You’re really frustrated right now.”
• helping them calm down before teaching

2. Set clear, calm boundaries

Boundaries don’t need to be harsh to be effective.

Try:

• “I won’t let you hit.”
• “I can’t let you throw that.”
• following through consistently and safely

3. Teach skills, not fear

Smacking may stop behaviour through fear, but effective discipline teaches skills children can use again.

Ask yourself: What skill is missing here?

• emotional regulation
• waiting
• using words
• problem-solving

Teach these skills when things are calm.

4. Use natural and logical consequences

Consequences work best when they are clearly connected to the behaviour.

Examples:

• throwing toys → toys are put away
• hitting during play → play ends
• scribbling on walls → helping to clean (age-appropriate)

5. Offer choices to reduce power struggles

Many behaviour battles are really about control.

Try:

• “Do you want to brush your teeth before or after pyjamas?”
• “Red cup or blue cup?”

You stay in charge, but your child gains autonomy.

6. Use connection as a discipline tool

Children behave better when they feel safe, seen, and connected.

Try:

• 5–10 minutes of one-to-one time each day
• Noticing and praising positive behaviour
• Repairing after conflict: “That was hard. We’re okay now.”

7. Have a plan for when you’re about to snap

Many parents who smack do so because they’re overwhelmed, not because they want to.

If you feel yourself boiling over:

• Step away briefly if your child is safe
• Take a few deep breaths
• Use a reset phrase: “I can handle this without hitting.”

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Conclusion

Smacking children to correct misbehaviour is widespread, yet heavily debated. The strongest syntheses of evidence show no benefit for improving behaviour and consistent links between smacking and multiple detrimental outcomes, even when it is defined narrowly and separated from abuse.

It’s also helpful to remember that young children’s brains are still developing particularly the areas responsible for impulse control and emotional regulation.

Parents deserve tools that work, not ones that escalate conflict or risk harm. The good news is that effective, evidence-based alternatives exist and they’re often more powerful than we’ve been led to believe.